InfoGram 8-07: March 1, 2007

This InfoGram will be distributed weekly to provide members of the Emergency Services Sector with information concerning the protection of their critical infrastructures. For further information, contact the Emergency Management and Response - Information Sharing and Analysis Center (EMR-ISAC) at (301) 447-1325 or by email at emr-isac@fema.dhs.gov.

The Chlorine Threat

Considering the recent increase in international news media reporting regarding incidents involving chlorine, the Emergency Management and Response-Information Sharing and Analysis Center (EMR-ISAC) examined the potential chlorine threat to Emergency Services Sector (ESS) personnel and operations. ESS departments and agencies recognize chlorine is a dangerous asphyxiate that can result in major health and psychological consequences even after low-level exposure. Most emergency responders understand chlorine is more lethal if released under optimal conditions such as in confined areas or outdoors with low humidity and no wind. Response personnel additionally comprehend that chlorine is heavier than air and will concentrate in low-lying areas (e.g., basements and subways tunnels).

Chlorine is used worldwide to disinfect water and is extremely important in the production of plastics and pharmaceuticals. The EMR-ISAC reminds ESS personnel that because chlorine is a common industrial chemical, it is a frequent target of thefts, particularly from water treatment facilities throughout the United States. Unfortunately, these thefts illustrate both the abundance of the chemical and also how easily it can be obtained for illicit or terrorist purposes. Security specialists assert chlorine canisters or chlorine tanker trucks used in combination with improvised explosive devices are an effective weapon of terror. For example, on three occasions this year, insurgents in Iraq have incorporated canisters of liquefied chlorine into vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices. The latest of these attacks (21 February) caused several deaths and left many others suffering from exposure to the dispersed chlorine.

The psychological effect of this type of weapon along with media interest could lead to its further use by domestic or transnational terrorists anywhere in the world. It is even possible that terrorists will seek to release gaseous chlorine stored on site or, alternatively, attack tanker trucks and railcars transporting it to nation-wide destinations. Hence, the likely American target set will include, but is not limited to, water and wastewater plants, chemical facilities, and chlorine transit by truck, rail, or ship.

Realizing the potential threat to ESS critical infrastructures, the EMR-ISAC encourages emergency organizations to identify all locations where chlorine is stored and transported. Operations and response plans for these sites should be prepared or revised if already existing. Vigilance should be maintained at these locations by an internal security force as well as by concerned citizens. Furthermore, thefts of chlorine, suspicious inquiries, and unusual activities related to the storage or transport of chlorine should be reported to law enforcement authorities as soon as possible.

Resilience Considerations for Disaster Planning and Management

The Emergency Management and Response-Information Sharing and Analysis Center (EMR-ISAC) has encouraged the consideration of resilience measures in previous InfoGram articles. Briefly stated, resilience measures complement critical infrastructure protective measures by enabling an Emergency Services Sector (ESS) department or agencies to "bounce back" from a disaster and quickly restore normal operations. As often quoted, it means: "to take a licking, but keep on ticking."

According to recent study conducted by the Arizona State University Resilience Solutions Group and recorded by John W. Reich, it is important for community leaders and their emergency managers to incorporate three core principles into disaster planning that will promote resilience: control, coherence, and connectedness. Research supports that dysfunctional responses to disaster results from the failure to consider three central human needs: the need for control, the need for coherence, and the need for connectedness ("3 C's"). The EMR-ISAC provides the following summary of the "3 C's" (excerpted from the study report) and their relevance to emergency planning and management:

• Control. Providing short-term help is critical to solving immediate problems, but the key to building personal resilience is to enable people, to give them resources to rebuild their own lives. Any help should avoid longer-term dependency and the loss of control by individuals to set their own goals, make their own decisions, and guide the events of their own lives. Studies consistently demonstrate that people are resilient and can cope surprisingly well in disastrous circumstances given some modest resources.
• Coherence. Disaster responses should focus on helping citizens mentally and behaviorally to create order and structure in their lives. There should be processes and procedures to reduce uncertainty by providing as much information as rapidly as possible. Uncertainty undermines resilience and it is the enemy of successful adaptation.
• Connectedness. An individual's need for connectedness is probably never greater than in times of disaster. Things get organized, actions get completed, and goals get achieved when people are able to bond and work together. Therefore, volunteer organizations and other sources of connectivity need to involve as many people as possible long before a catastrophe occurs. This network of embedded citizens becomes a "ready resilience resource" and provides supportive relationships to help all get through the dark times.

Near-Miss First Yearly Report

The Emergency Management and Response-Information Sharing and Analysis Center (EMR-ISAC) notes that Lessons Learned, Lessons Shared: Near-Miss Reporting, One Year Later (PDF, 2.5 Mb), the 2006 report released by the National Fire Fighter Near-Miss Reporting System, offers insights about incidents that can destroy or degrade the personnel and physical assets of the Emergency Services Sector (ESS). Last year, more than 1,000 ESS personnel submitted near-miss reports to offer information about their experiences that might save or protect other sector members. The project defines a near-miss event as "an unintentional unsafe occurrence that could have resulted in an injury, fatality, or property damage." The aim of the reporting system at Firefighternearmiss.com has always been to share lessons learned to protect the ESS and to determine if new strategies and approaches can be developed to enhance personnel safety.

The report provides statistics derived from analysis of the 2006 reports. It includes details about who submitted reports, incident type, causes of the near-miss events, and their loss potential. Also chronicled in the report is information produced by ESS cross-sector working groups who evaluated reports in specific categories using a modified version of the U.S. Navy's Human Factors Analysis and Classification System. The system evaluates events based on four levels of individual and institutional performance: unsafe acts, preconditions to unsafe acts, unsafe supervision, and organizational influences. Analysis reveals that the most frequently occurring contributing factors in near-misses are situational awareness, human error, and decision-making. In 2006, these factors resulted in life-threatening injuries, lost-time injuries, and property damage as the top three areas of loss potential.

The EMR-ISAC suggests that responders review the 16-page report from a critical infrastructure protection perspective, attending especially to information regarding personnel and physical asset protection. The report includes recommendations, two case studies, and additional resources.

Web Site for Clandestine Drug Lab Locations

Earlier this week, the Emergency Management and Response-Information Sharing and Analysis Center (EMR-ISAC) disseminated Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) Bulletin 2-07, entitled "Clandestine Drug Labs: First Responder Awareness Card." The Awareness Card was distributed because Emergency Services Sector (ESS) personnel are frequently exposed to and, occasionally, injured in present and former clandestine drug lab sites. Because the Awareness Card recommends the identification of even former clandestine drug labs, the EMR-ISAC searched for a resource that can help responders with this task.

Last month, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) initiated operation of its online National Clandestine Laboratory Register. The state-by-state registry of drug lab properties, with addresses, is a warning to responders, housing code officials, utility workers, and prospective home buyers that the former properties are hazardous sites. Clandestine methamphetamine laboratories, for example, pose a significant danger in communities because they contain highly flammable and explosive materials. Additionally, for each pound of methamphetamine produced, five to seven pounds of toxic waste remain.

At least six states also sponsor online registries of former drug lab properties. Several other states have legislation pending that would require such listings. The article "Tweaker Houses" in the February 2007 issue of Government Technology provides an overview of some of the state registries already in operation.

Given the ongoing hazards to ESS personnel posed by clandestine drug labs, the EMR-ISAC suggests another source of information, the MethResources.gov Website, which includes law enforcement, public safety, and training and technical assistance sections.